On this day, on March 25, 1821, the Greek War of Independence was officially declared against the Ottoman Empire. The successful revolution brought an end to over 400 years of Ottoman occupation, and paved the way for the first Greek state in 1830. The revolution ended in the Battle of Petra on September 12, 1829.
Following the devastating Fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, the enslaved Greeks revolted against the Ottoman Empire over 120 times. The first revolt took place in Mani in 1457. Although the Ottomans suppressed it, they failed to capture the strategic area. Decades later, in 1478-1479, the first revolt that was led by a woman - the 18 year old Maroula Komninos - occurred on the island of Lemnos, which resulted in a brief Ottoman retreat. Most revolts prior to 1821 were regional in nature, with a few being much better organized and broader in scope, such as the Orlov Revolt of 1770.
The foundations for the educational revival of the enslaved Greek nation took root in the 18th century in the Greek diaspora in Europe. At that time, Europe was benefiting from intellectual, philosophical and liberalization movements and the Greek leaders in the diaspora rightly believed that the only way that the Greeks could free themselves from Ottoman tyranny was through the modern Greek enlightenment where ideas from the west would be taught to the Greeks in the Ottoman Empire. Hundreds of wealthy benefactors, important scholars and highly educated clerics emerged, with the most well-known figures being Rigas Velestinlis "Pheraios" and Adamantios Korais, and the clerics Methodios Anthrakitis, Evgenios Voulgaris and Ioannis Dimitrakellis.
The period of the modern Greek enlightenment coincided with total Greek supremacy in the seas. The Ottoman Empire's most important trading partners were in western Europe, and as such, more Greeks became exposed to western ideas as a result of working on ships. In some areas of the Ottoman Empire, even in areas under the rule of the tyrannical Ali Pasha, many scholars and Greek Orthodox clerics educated in western Europe were brought to the occupied lands to teach. Although "officially" they taught religious studies as required by authorities, these scholars and clerics taught ideas of the enlightenment, freedom, math and science, and the very dangerous subjects of that era, the French and American Revolutions.
In 1788, Ali Pasha of Tepelena conquered the Pashalik of Yanina, and created his own "state within a state." A three decade internal civil war would ensue between himself and the Sublime Porte. Although Muslim, Ali was not a fanatic. He tolerated Christians as long as they did his bidding, and allowed Greeks to join his military. He also employed wealthy and educated Greeks in his court. Many of the Greeks in his military service - including Karaiskakis and Androutsos among others - would become future leaders of the Greek Revolution. Although Ali was uneducated, he was not necessarily opposed to education, but was indifferent.
By the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire was in a slow decline. Aside from the ongoing issues with Ali Pasha that put a strain on government coffers, the empire was also suffering from incompetent leadership, rising debt, lack of taxation and falling behind in modernizing their industries which could no longer compete with Europe that was in the middle of their industrial revolution.
On September 14, 1814, taking advantage of the ongoing Ottoman civil war with Ali Pasha and also the economic decline, three merchants with no no wealth, no political connection or clout - Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanuil Xanthos, and Athanasios Tsakalov - established the secret organization "Filiki Eteria" in Odessa, Russian Empire (now Ukraine). Their goal: "the preparation for the Greek War of Independence." In the beginning, however, no one took them seriously and Greeks laughed at their audacious plan. But, by 1818, due to rampant rumors and intrigue circulating about the existence of this mysterious organization, many Greeks of different economic standing were being initiated in large numbers. In April of 1820, the leadership of the Filiki Eteria was given to Alexandros Ypsilantis.
On January 26, 1821, the Filiki Eteria organized a five-day Secret Meeting at Vostitsa, where the delegates present chose the date of March 25, for the start of the Greek Revolution. A month later, at the end of February, Alexandros Ypsilantis was forced to hastily declare war against the Ottoman Empire in the Danubian Principalities (in today's Iași, Romania), because a traitor had revealed the revolutionary plans of the Filiki Eteria to Ottoman authorities. The news that Ypsilantis had declared war immediately spread throughout Greece.
Not wanting to wait any longer, the Greeks of Mani declared war on March 17, 1821, a week before the designated date. On March 23, 1821, Kalamata was liberated. Some historians also argue that Kalavryta and Patras was also liberated either before Kalamata or around the same time.
On March 25, 1821, the Greek War of Independence was officially declared.
A few of the major battles that determined the course of the Revolution include the Fall of Tripolitsa (1821), the Battle of Valtetsi (1821), the Battle of the Inn at Gravia (1821), the Battle of Dervenakia (1822), the Battle of Arachova (1826) and the Naval Battle of Navarino (1827).
The lowest point during the Revolution was the infighting among Greeks that resulted in two civil wars - that of 1823-1824, and that of 1824-1825. The Revolution was almost lost.
One of the most painful events of the Revolution that shook Europe was the Exodus of Messolonghi on April 10-11, 1826.
The last battle of the Revolution was the successful Greek victory at the Battle of Petra on 12 September 1829. This was the only battle in which the Greeks fought as an organized military against the Ottoman Empire.
The first Greek state, composed of the Peloponnese, parts of central Greece and a few outlying islands was recognized as an independent state in 1830 by the London Protocol.
Some of the greatest leaders of the Revolution were: Theodoros Kolokotronis, Georgios Karaiskakis, Laskarina Bouboulina, Athanasios Diakos, Odysseas Androutsos, Nikitaras, Markos Botsaris, Papaflessas, Manto Mavrogenous and countless others.
Long live Greece!
Long live Cyprus!
Long live the Greeks in the diaspora!
Hellenic Canadian Research Institute (Hellenic Institute)
___
BVT; Updated March 24, 2026
Following the devastating Fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, the enslaved Greeks revolted against the Ottoman Empire over 120 times. The first revolt took place in Mani in 1457. Although the Ottomans suppressed it, they failed to capture the strategic area. Decades later, in 1478-1479, the first revolt that was led by a woman - the 18 year old Maroula Komninos - occurred on the island of Lemnos, which resulted in a brief Ottoman retreat. Most revolts prior to 1821 were regional in nature, with a few being much better organized and broader in scope, such as the Orlov Revolt of 1770.
The foundations for the educational revival of the enslaved Greek nation took root in the 18th century in the Greek diaspora in Europe. At that time, Europe was benefiting from intellectual, philosophical and liberalization movements and the Greek leaders in the diaspora rightly believed that the only way that the Greeks could free themselves from Ottoman tyranny was through the modern Greek enlightenment where ideas from the west would be taught to the Greeks in the Ottoman Empire. Hundreds of wealthy benefactors, important scholars and highly educated clerics emerged, with the most well-known figures being Rigas Velestinlis "Pheraios" and Adamantios Korais, and the clerics Methodios Anthrakitis, Evgenios Voulgaris and Ioannis Dimitrakellis.
The period of the modern Greek enlightenment coincided with total Greek supremacy in the seas. The Ottoman Empire's most important trading partners were in western Europe, and as such, more Greeks became exposed to western ideas as a result of working on ships. In some areas of the Ottoman Empire, even in areas under the rule of the tyrannical Ali Pasha, many scholars and Greek Orthodox clerics educated in western Europe were brought to the occupied lands to teach. Although "officially" they taught religious studies as required by authorities, these scholars and clerics taught ideas of the enlightenment, freedom, math and science, and the very dangerous subjects of that era, the French and American Revolutions.
In 1788, Ali Pasha of Tepelena conquered the Pashalik of Yanina, and created his own "state within a state." A three decade internal civil war would ensue between himself and the Sublime Porte. Although Muslim, Ali was not a fanatic. He tolerated Christians as long as they did his bidding, and allowed Greeks to join his military. He also employed wealthy and educated Greeks in his court. Many of the Greeks in his military service - including Karaiskakis and Androutsos among others - would become future leaders of the Greek Revolution. Although Ali was uneducated, he was not necessarily opposed to education, but was indifferent.
By the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire was in a slow decline. Aside from the ongoing issues with Ali Pasha that put a strain on government coffers, the empire was also suffering from incompetent leadership, rising debt, lack of taxation and falling behind in modernizing their industries which could no longer compete with Europe that was in the middle of their industrial revolution.
On September 14, 1814, taking advantage of the ongoing Ottoman civil war with Ali Pasha and also the economic decline, three merchants with no no wealth, no political connection or clout - Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanuil Xanthos, and Athanasios Tsakalov - established the secret organization "Filiki Eteria" in Odessa, Russian Empire (now Ukraine). Their goal: "the preparation for the Greek War of Independence." In the beginning, however, no one took them seriously and Greeks laughed at their audacious plan. But, by 1818, due to rampant rumors and intrigue circulating about the existence of this mysterious organization, many Greeks of different economic standing were being initiated in large numbers. In April of 1820, the leadership of the Filiki Eteria was given to Alexandros Ypsilantis.
On January 26, 1821, the Filiki Eteria organized a five-day Secret Meeting at Vostitsa, where the delegates present chose the date of March 25, for the start of the Greek Revolution. A month later, at the end of February, Alexandros Ypsilantis was forced to hastily declare war against the Ottoman Empire in the Danubian Principalities (in today's Iași, Romania), because a traitor had revealed the revolutionary plans of the Filiki Eteria to Ottoman authorities. The news that Ypsilantis had declared war immediately spread throughout Greece.
Not wanting to wait any longer, the Greeks of Mani declared war on March 17, 1821, a week before the designated date. On March 23, 1821, Kalamata was liberated. Some historians also argue that Kalavryta and Patras was also liberated either before Kalamata or around the same time.
On March 25, 1821, the Greek War of Independence was officially declared.
A few of the major battles that determined the course of the Revolution include the Fall of Tripolitsa (1821), the Battle of Valtetsi (1821), the Battle of the Inn at Gravia (1821), the Battle of Dervenakia (1822), the Battle of Arachova (1826) and the Naval Battle of Navarino (1827).
The lowest point during the Revolution was the infighting among Greeks that resulted in two civil wars - that of 1823-1824, and that of 1824-1825. The Revolution was almost lost.
One of the most painful events of the Revolution that shook Europe was the Exodus of Messolonghi on April 10-11, 1826.
The last battle of the Revolution was the successful Greek victory at the Battle of Petra on 12 September 1829. This was the only battle in which the Greeks fought as an organized military against the Ottoman Empire.
The first Greek state, composed of the Peloponnese, parts of central Greece and a few outlying islands was recognized as an independent state in 1830 by the London Protocol.
Some of the greatest leaders of the Revolution were: Theodoros Kolokotronis, Georgios Karaiskakis, Laskarina Bouboulina, Athanasios Diakos, Odysseas Androutsos, Nikitaras, Markos Botsaris, Papaflessas, Manto Mavrogenous and countless others.
Long live Greece!
Long live Cyprus!
Long live the Greeks in the diaspora!
Hellenic Canadian Research Institute (Hellenic Institute)
___
BVT; Updated March 24, 2026
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